The expression "work-life balance" has many interpretations, each focusing on different aspects of workers' lives (Brough et al., 2020). However, most definitions overlook a straightforward assessment of the term, complicating an inconvenient truth. When we talk about "work-life balance," we implicitly separate work from life, as if work is not a part of life itself. These definitions often introduce unnecessary complexities—factors like time, energy, commitment, or role—that obscure the core issue: society treats work as an alienating activity that detracts from living.

Globally, dissatisfaction with work is widespread. Sinha et al. (2022) report that 60% of the Indian workforce, 51% of the U.S. workforce, 47% of the U.K. workforce, and 70% of the Canadian workforce are unhappy with their jobs. In Japan, where karoshi—death from overwork—has gained international recognition, 58% of workers share similar dissatisfaction. These figures highlight the growing global discontent with the significant portion of life dedicated to alienating work activities.

While the World Health Organization (2024) acknowledges the mental health challenges in the workplace and encourages employers to take action, employees can also adopt strategies to better cope with this matter. One of these strategies is mindfulness, a core concept in Buddhist philosophy. Mindfulness, part of the broader Buddhist framework of the middle path, involves maintaining present-moment awareness without judgment. It promotes balance by fostering a deeper understanding of one's emotions, thoughts, and environment, helping individuals avoid the extremes of over-identification with work or complete disengagement.

By cultivating mindfulness, individuals can better manage the competing demands of work and personal life, approaching both with clarity and calm. In this essay, I will explore how the Japanese working culture can benefit from Buddhist principles, particularly mindfulness, to address the imbalance that often leads to overwork and karojisatsu (suicide from overwork), ultimately fostering greater fulfilment in the workplace.

After World War II, Japanese society committed to hard work to rebuild the country and position Japan as one of the most advanced nations in the world. This dedication was fuelled by societal values rooted in strict discipline, much of which was inspired by Bushidō (de Freitas Júnior et al., 2022). Bushidō, often referred to as "The Way of the Warrior," encompasses the ethical code of the Samurai. It extended beyond martial skill to include absolute loyalty to one’s lord, a strong sense of personal honour, profound dedication to duty, and the courage to sacrifice one’s life for a greater cause (Davies, 2002). While for the Samurai, Bushidō was aligned with Zen Buddhism, the Bushidō that survived beyond the Samurai class lost its Buddhist traits and evolved into a strict ethical code. Post-WWII, Japan developed an overworking culture, driven by loyalty to the company and a deep sense of duty to family and employers. Failure to meet these expectations often led to the ultimate consequence in Bushidō: suicide. While Bushidō contributed to Japan’s post-war growth and prosperity, it exacted a significant toll on Japanese men and women who devoted themselves to their jobs or homes.

As Bushidō lost its connection with Zen Buddhism, and given that Buddhism is known as the middle path—advocating a balance between the renouncer’s tradition of strict discipline and indulgence—it is useful to juxtapose Bushidō with the renouncers' tradition to explore both similarities and differences. By examining these parallels, we can better understand how the middle path, central to Buddhist philosophy, might offer a solution to Japan's culture of overwork and work-related suicide.

For both renouncers and Bushidō, "merit" plays a pivotal role. Renouncers believed that all beings are subject to the endless and painful cycle of rebirth—samsara. The way to escape samsara is by acquiring good karma or, more simply, merit (Powers, 2018). While renouncer schools disagreed on specifics, they all emphasized avoiding violence, passion, and attachment. To do this, renouncers often withdrew from society. However, this alone was not sufficient; they also engaged in ascetic practices, such as mental and physical austerity, to accumulate merit and cleanse negative karma. Similarly, Bushidō involves enduring personal sacrifice to fulfil duty toward society, a concept inherited from Confucianism, which emphasizes a social order based on strict ethical rules (Davies, 1998). In Bushidō, suffering and sacrifice are seen as honourable, leading to the acceptance of overwork, neglecting one’s health, and enduring stress. While renouncers sought to escape suffering, Bushidō seemed to embrace it. This mindset, where personal sacrifice becomes a measure of worth, contributes to Japan’s "love affair with masochism" (Adams, 2012).

In contrast to renouncers who rejected desire and attachment by withdrawing from the world, Bushidō encourages attachment to societal expectations as a benchmark for self-esteem and personal worth. As Kenneth (2012) notes, postwar Japanese culture was built on the external sacrifice of men at the workplace, supported by the internal sacrifice of women in the home. In summary, post-Samurai Bushidō evolved into an ethos of accepting, even exalting, suffering as a key aspect of life.

Another aspect worth comparing between renouncers and Bushidō is how both approaches engage with communities. Renouncers would give up their families to join communities where they would dedicate themselves to prescribed practices (Powers, 2018). Conversely, Japanese society, as a consequence of Bushidō, views relationships in three spheres: 1) relationships of interdependence (typically family relationships), 2) relationships regulated by constraint (typically work relationships), and 3) relationships with strangers, where neither interdependence nor constraints are in play (Davies, 2002). Both the renouncers’ tradition and Bushidō fail to cultivate a universal form of compassion and generosity by ignoring parts of society. This similarity between Buddhism and Bushidō further strengthens my argument that Buddhism can positively influence Japanese working culture by reducing isolation and improving communication.

As mentioned earlier, while Bushidō once went hand in hand with Zen Buddhism, this connection has since faded. Moreover, Japanese society before and after World War II are very different: in the past, Japanese people were known as fearless warriors, but today they are celebrated for their kindness and lack of violence. "Because Zen Buddhism stressed physical discipline, self-control, and the practice of meditation in place of formal scholarship, this sect appealed to the warrior class" (Burns & Ralph, 1955). As Japanese society has shifted away from the warrior mentality, I think that the softer message conveyed in early Buddhism better suits modern Japanese society.

To further explore how Bushidō could benefit from the Buddhist middle path, it's essential to delve into core Buddhist teachings, specifically the Four Noble Truths.

The first of the noble truths is Dukkha (suffering). Buddhism asserts that suffering is part of life, but—unlike Bushidō—one’s goal should be to transcend it rather than glorify it (Siderits, 2023). By embracing this Buddhist principle, the Japanese working culture could shift toward managing and mitigating overwork and personal sacrifice. The second noble truth, Samudaya, explains that suffering arises from attachment and desire (Siderits, 2023). Bushidō implies attachment to values like duty, loyalty, and societal expectations. For the Japanese salaryman, this means attachment to his work role. Recognizing that these values are not one’s true identity could prompt a deeper questioning of what one’s identity truly is and whether attachment to such values is even necessary. The third noble truth, Nirodha, states that it is possible to end suffering by eliminating its cause—craving and attachment (Siderits, 2023). By realizing that it is possible to develop many kinds of attachments, leading to different identities, a person may realise that if one can be anything, then there is no fixed self at all. Therefore, one can aim to remove attachments and desires while pursuing a path to improve karma and attain nirvana, the state of liberation and freedom from suffering. The fourth noble truth, Magga, provides guidance on how to reach such liberation (Siderits, 2023). This guidance, called "The Eightfold Path," offers practical instructions on how Bushidō culture could regain its balance and address the overworking culture. Specifically:

The “Right View” principle is about the realization that suffering is part of life. For Bushidō, this could involve understanding that life is more than duty and sacrifice and that a balanced approach to work and life is essential for well-being. (Siderits, 2023).

The second principle, “Right Intention,” refers to ethical and mental improvement. For Bushidō, this would mean reorienting one’s intention from blind loyalty and sacrifice to mindful action that supports both personal and collective well-being. (Siderits, 2023).

The third principle is Right Speech: In Buddhism, this is about speaking truthfully and kindly. Bushidō could embrace this principle to promote open discussions about stress, work-life balance, and mental health. (Siderits, 2023).

The fourth principle, Right Action, aims to promote harmony. Right action could help Bushidō highlight good behaviours not only toward the employer or the family but also toward oneself and society as a whole.

The fifth principle is Right Livelihood and it encourages work that avoids harm. Bushidō could utilize this by encouraging people to select careers and positions that promote balance rather than relentless work.

Through Right Effort Buddhism highlights the importance of avoiding negative states of mind. In Bushidō, this could mean focusing on one’s duty while practising self-compassion and avoiding burnout.

The Right Mindfulness principle could encourage workers to stay aware of their psychophysical condition and be alert to excess stress and overwork.

Finally, Right Concentration: This refers to focusing on what is beneficial and promotes positive and substantial change. Workers could learn to focus on what is truly important, delivering positive change with less stress. Interestingly, this point is also supported by the well-known “Pareto Principle,” vastly used in businesses, which states that 80% of results are driven by 20% of actions. Therefore, Bushidō could utilize the principle of “Right Concentration” to encourage people to work smarter, not harder, resulting in positive effects on well-being and mental health.

As one strives to incorporate Buddhist principles into Bushidō, it is necessary to acquire new tools and qualities, abilities that facilitate the path. According to Buddhism, it is essential to cultivate the “six perfections” (paramitas).

For example, Generosity could support the implementation of the “Right Action” principle, as it encourages a more compassionate approach that extends beyond one’s company or family and embraces the broader society. Similarly, the virtue of Morality, which encourages moral conduct toward all beings—beyond personal honour and loyalty to superiors—could help align one’s life with the principles of “Right Livelihood” and “Right Action.” The virtue of Patience, which calls for avoiding punishment and suffering while promoting peace, could support the principle of “Right Speech.” The virtue of Diligence works well alongside “Right Mindfulness,” as it encourages personal growth alongside professional growth.

Meditation is the virtue necessary to cultivate mindfulness, assisting in the pursuit of “Right Concentration.”. Studies confirm the fact that mindfulness supports well-being in the workplace and productivity. For example, according to Petchsawang (2008), there is a positive correlation between meditation and work performance and Petchsawang (2008) suggests that organizations should promote mindfulness in the workplace.

Finally, the Wisdom Perfection, which involves seeing clearly, could help realise that loyalty to employers or duty alone does not lead to happiness or fulfilment and would sustain the path toward the “Right View” principle.

In conclusion, integrating Buddhist principles into Bushidō provides a practical way to address the issues of overwork and personal sacrifice in Japanese society. Bushidō, with its deep focus on loyalty, duty, and acceptance of suffering, has shaped a culture where work often comes at the expense of well-being. However, this philosophy, in its modern form, has led to burnout and serious mental health problems, including karojisatsu. By reintroducing Buddhist ideas—especially the middle path that advocates balance and mindfulness—Japanese working culture can move toward a healthier approach that nurtures both personal and collective well-being. The Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path, and the Six Perfections offer valuable tools to rethink Bushidō and create a more balanced work-life dynamic. By incorporating these principles, individuals can achieve a more meaningful, fulfilling life, while society, in turn, benefits from a more compassionate and sustainable work culture. This way, work-life balance in Japan could be dramatically improved.

References:

Adams, Kenneth. (2012). Japan: The Sacrificial Society. The Journal of psychohistory. 40. 89-100.

Brough, P., Timms, C., Chan, X. W., Hawkes, A., & Rasmussen, L. (2020). Work-life balance: Definitions, causes, and consequences. Handbook of Socioeconomic Determinants of Occupational Health, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05031-3_20-1 

Burns, E., & Ralph, P. (1955). World civilizations, Vol. 1 (3rd ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

Davies, R. (2002b). The Japanese mind understanding contemporary japanese culture ed. by Roger J. Davies . Tuttle. 

Davies R. Confucianism. Unpublished manuscript, Ehime University, 1998a.

De Freitas Júnior, A. R., da Costa, P. E., & Soares, R. C. (2022) The Karoshi phenomenon: Scenarios from Japan and Brazil. INTERNATIONAL DIALOGUES ON LITIGATION AND SOCIETY, 161.

Petchsawang, P. (2008). Workplace spirituality and Buddhist meditation.

Powers, J. (2018). The Buddhist World. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. 

Siderits, M. (2023, March 6). Buddha. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/buddha/#CoreTeac 

Sinha, R., Dhal, S. K., Narayanan, M., Sharma, A., Goyal, A., Mundhra, G., & Dasari, R. A. (2022). An Exploratory Study on Job Dissatisfaction at Workplace. International Journal of Research in Engineering, Science and Management, 5(4), 172-177.

World Health Organization. (2024, September 2). Mental health at work. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-health-at-work